Major League Baseball in Iowa: Iowa’s History of Hosting Negro League Contests

 

The Washington Post described the so-called significance of the August 12, 2021, matchup between the New York Yankees and the Chicago White Sox played in Dyersville, Iowa—where the movie Field of Dreams was filmed—this way: “Thursday night, 30 years and a pandemic after the release of that movie, the state will host its first MLB game at a specially made field plowed into the cornfields outside Dyersville, not far from the diamond where the movie was filmed.”1

Other news outlets carried similar messages. A USA Today Sports story predicted that “About 8,000 fans will be on hand to watch the New York Yankees and Chicago White Sox in the first MLB game ever played in the state of Iowa.”2Des Moines Register writer Tommy Birch, days prior to the matchup, chronicled how the game had sparked renewed interest in the movie site. Birch shared how visitors to Iowa were making pilgrimages to Dyersville. “On Aug. 12, the New York Yankees and the Chicago White Sox, two historic franchises featured in the film, will play in the first official MLB game in Iowa history on a specially built field right next to the diamond featured in the movie.”3

Not so fast, tweeted John Thorn, official historian of Major League Baseball. “Iowa did host some Negro Leagues games of 1920-1948 (the era included by MLB). Negro American League games were played in Davenport, Des Moines and Council Bluffs (neutral sites)—complicating the story of ‘Iowa’s first MLB game.’…”4

In between MLB’s initial announcement of the game to be played in Dyersville and the game’s first pitch, the commissioner of Major League Baseball, Robert Manfred Jr., had announced (in December 2020) that Major League Baseball was correcting “a longtime oversight” in the game’s history by officially recognizing that the Negro Leagues were deserving of the designation “major,” joining the Federal League, American Association, and a few other defunct leagues that share that status. The announcement stated that MLB was proud to showcase the contributions of those who played in seven distinct leagues from 1920 through 1948. “With this action, MLB seeks to ensure that future generations will remember the approximately 3,400 players of the Negro Leagues during this time period as Major League-caliber ballplayers. Accordingly, the statistics and records of these players will become a part of Major League Baseball’s history.”5

It turns out that Iowa has a robust history of hosting Negro League games. The authors, primarily using newspaper accounts, discovered at least 30 games between Negro League teams played in Iowa from 1937 to 1948. These games were played in the three Iowa cities mentioned by John Thorn in his tweet, along with others played in Sioux City and Charles City.

Documenting what counts and what doesn’t count as an official Negro League game is challenging and an ongoing process. Retrosheet president Tom Thress explained that games played in communities other than the teams’ home bases and during the regular season that were reflected in league standings typically count as official.6 Those played in the offseason or those that involved only one Negro League team (typically played against a local team or another barnstorming team) are considered exhibition games.7

No teams that were members of one of the seven Negro Leagues now recognized as major league by MLB had franchises in Iowa. However, barnstorming was a major component of Negro League operations, and the Kansas City Monarchs and the Chicago American Giants were frequent visitors to Iowa. Sometimes they played local clubs, sometimes other barnstorming teams, and sometimes each other.8

As early as 1926, a brief article in the Des Moines Tribune advertised two coming games in June as the headline proclaimed, “Negro Teams to Play Exhibition in June.”9 However, the first game apparently played in Iowa now recognized as official by MLB pitted the Cincinnati Tigers and the Birmingham Black Barons on May 27, 1937—after the weather stymied three earlier attempts that year.

A preview story in the Des Moines Register that ran on May 16 proclaimed, “Two teams from the Negro major league will play at League park Wednesday and Thursday nights of this week. The Chicago American Giants, who were seen here last season in games against Des Moines and the House of David, will play the Cincinnati Tigers of the same circuit.”10 Two days later, the Register’s sports editor, Sec Taylor, began his “Sittin’ In” column with “Negro Stars Play Here. Games Count in the League.”11 Along with establishing the official nature of the game, he hyped the contest with the observation, “It was claimed before the Giants appeared here a year ago that at least six or seven of their players would be in the National or American leagues if they were white, and after the Negroes defeated the Des Moines Western leaguers and the House of David, there were few who would dispute those claims.”12

Mother Nature failed to cooperate and both games were rained out. A week later, two newly scheduled contests were announced. “Teams from the Negro National league are going to try to play in Des Moines again… The Cincinnati Tigers, rained out of two scheduled games here last week with the Chicago American Giants, will return here Wednesday and Thursday nights but this time their opponents will be the Birmingham Black Barons, champions of the south, this year members of the league.”13 A subsequent article established that the game would count in the season’s standings, and also added this incentive, “If attendance here warrants it, other league contests will be played here this season when the local Western league club is out of the city.”14

The first of the two announced games between the Tigers and the Black Barons was also rained out. Finally, after three washouts, an official league game was played on Thursday, May 27, 1937. Cincinnati led 2-1 until a five-run outburst by the Black Barons in the top of the fifth. “Birmingham bunched five hits and took advantage of a pair of Tiger errors to push across their five tallies,” read the Register’s game recap. “Herman (Red) Howard, husky Baron twirler, stopped the Cincinnati batters with his southpaw slants and scattered nine hits. The Tigers pushed across two runs in the eighth stanza to narrow the gap, but Birmingham came back with two runs to put the game on ice in the ninth frame.” Final score: 8-4.15

Des Moines would have to wait until the next season for another turn at hosting a Negro League contest. In July 1938, the Des Moines Tribune announced that “The Chicago American Giants and the Kansas City Monarchs, crack teams from the Negro American league, will meet at League park, Des Moines, on Thursday night, July 28.”16 Sec Taylor, in his column, once again promoted the caliber of Negro League baseball. “Thursday night the Kansas City Monarchs, pacesetters in the Negro American league, will meet the Chicago American Giants in a regularly scheduled game in the Negro American league. There is no need to point out the brand of baseball that is played in that league. Several of its teams have appeared here in former years and have proved conclusively that they measure up to double A, almost to major league standards, and have several players who if they were white, would now be playing under the big top.”17

The Chicago American Giants pounded out 14 hits on their way to an 11-4 triumph over the Monarchs. Slugging third baseman Alec Radcliffe led the attack with two triples and a double. “A crowd of 1,500 persons saw some hard hitting, some thrilling plays, including great fielding,” reported the Des Moines Register. “The spectators were so enthusiastic that [promoter] E. Lee Keyser decided to book another Negro American league game as soon as possible.”18

The Kansas City Monarchs were frequent visitors to Iowa for official Negro American League games in 1939. The Monarchs roster that season featured five future National Baseball Hall of Famers. Pitcher Hilton Smith was the ace of the staff but didn’t pitch in any of the three official games in Iowa. However, Iowa spectators did see the other four future Hall of Famers in player-manager Andy Cooper, Willard Brown, Norman “Turkey” Stearnes, and John “Buck” O’Neil. “Baseball hungry Des Moines scoffed at threatening skies Friday night and turned out 600 strong to watch the Kansas City Monarchs trounce the Indianapolis A.B.C.’s 11 to 2, behind the spectacular hitting of Willard (Willie) Brown, Negro baseball’s Rogers Hornsby,” described the game summary. “Brown, Monarch outfielder who led the American Negro league in home runs last year, whaled the tar out of Dad Mitchell’s pitching with a pair of triples and a brace of doubles in five trips to the plate. All of his blows, which brought in three runs, rattled off the centerfield fence.”19

In early July, the heavy-hitting Monarchs clashed with the St. Louis Stars, a team noted for their defensive prowess. “Great fielding plus a dozen hits let the St. Louis Stars wallop the Kansas City Monarchs, first half champions of the Negro American league, 9 to 5, before 1,000 fans at League park here Friday night.”20

The Monarchs were slated to face their rival Chicago American Giants in late July. Besides pitting the top two teams from the Negro American League, the game preview featured an unusual promotion. “As an added attraction Pepper Bassett, catcher for the Giants, will work one inning while seated in a rocking chair. Bassett once caught an entire game in this manner, as the outgrowth of a wager, and will try it for one inning this evening.”21 The game story failed to report whether Bassett worked an inning from a rocking chair. Perhaps his antics were overshadowed by the Monarchs’ onslaught as they combined 20 hits with eight errors by the Giants to whip them, 20-7. Turkey Stearnes helped lead the charge with two singles and a home run.22

The Monarchs and Giants squared off again in Des Moines in an official league game in 1940. This time O’Neil belted a home run to lead the Monarchs to a 7-3 triumph.23

After the 1940 contest, no official Negro League games were held in Des Moines for seven years. By 1947, the Negro League landscape had dramatically changed. On April 15, 1947, Jackie Robinson made national headlines when he broke the long-standing color barrier in the National League. “A Robinson To Play Here” proclaimed the headline of the Des Moines Tribune pregame story between the Kansas City Monarchs and the Chicago American Giants. “There will be a new Robinson at shortstop for the Kansas City Monarchs…He is Curt Robinson, 18-year-old flash from Berkeley, Cal…Of the four Negroes now playing in the majors, the Monarchs contributed three—Jackie Robinson and Henry Thompson, and Outfielder Willard Brown.”24

Due to the top talent being increasingly siphoned off into the American and National Leagues, 1948 is the final season that MLB recognizes the Negro Leagues as major league caliber. Des Moines hosted its final major league game on June 24 of that year. “Kansas City Monarchs rallied for six runs on a lone hit in the eighth inning to edge the Memphis Red Sox, 7-4.” It was player-manager Buck O’Neil’s three-run pinch-hit single, which followed five walks and an error, that provided the margin of victory. Future Hall of Famer Willie Wells went 2-for-4 for Memphis and had a stolen base in the losing effort. Willie Wells Jr. also played for Memphis, forming a rare father-son combination in the same game. The game was also notable in that Willard Brown and Henry Thompson were back with the Monarchs after their brief stints with the St. Louis Browns the previous season.25

 

 

Des Moines was the first city to host a major league baseball game in Iowa, but Davenport has hosted the most—at least 14 official Negro American League games were played in the Iowa community 1941-48. The Kansas City Monarchs were scheduled to take on the Birmingham Black Barons in the first major league game in Davenport, but due to a conflict in schedule, the Monarchs were unable to appear, so the Jacksonville Red Caps filled in, and the game was moved up one day to July 14, 1941.26“The hard swatting Birmingham Barons overpowered the Jacksonville Red Caps by an 8 to 3 count,” began the game recap. “The Barons also looked great in the field, completing four lightninglike double plays and made many beautiful stops in the infield.”27

The Kansas City Monarchs were able to keep a scheduled date later that summer and battled the St. Louis Stars. “Since the race for the second half title in the league is so close that neither the Monarchs nor the Blues [sic28] dare lose lest they might not get in the playoff, the game here should be a lulu since all the exhibition strings will be cut from the game. The boys will settle down to some real baseball.”29 Future Hall of Famer Hilton Smith was the starting pitcher for the Monarchs. He pitched through the sixth inning and left the game with a 3-2 lead. With Smith out of the game, St. Louis rallied for five runs in the top of the seventh to secure a 7-3 victory.30

After a one-year hiatus, Davenport baseball fans again attended official Negro American League games, only with a new wrinkle. In 1943 the famous barnstorming Ethiopian Clowns, who had been frequent visitors to Iowa over previous seasons, became the Cincinnati Clowns and an official member of the Negro American League. “They not only play a spectacular brand of baseball, but they also have the ability to put on clown acts which have the customers shouting for more,” proclaimed an article previewing the game between the Clowns and the Memphis Red Sox.31 Notable players for the Clowns included Reece “Goose” Tatum of Harlem Globetrotters fame and Lloyd “Pepper” Bassett, the Rocking Chair catcher.32 The Clowns performed their famous phantom infield practice for the entertainment of the fans during an intermission in the sixth inning, but it was the Red Sox who won the game, 6-1.33

A game between the Clowns and the Birmingham Black Barons a couple weeks later featured pregame contests: “Four of the fastest runners in the Negro American league will participate in a speed test…The managers of the two teams have selected their top men to compete in the base-running stunt, and the runner circling the bases in the best time gets first money… In addition there will be a complete list of stunts… There will be long-distance hitting and throwing for accuracy.”34 The Clowns not only won the game, 5-3, but their players also swept the pregame contests. Clowns right fielder John Britton won the two speed contests as he circled the bases in 14.9 seconds and won the 100-yard dash in 9.6 seconds.35

World War II strained the country’s resources and the Negro major leagues were no exception. “The Monarchs…are going to carry through for the duration despite the fact that the draft has hit them hard—if not harder—than any of the white clubs…with their ‘murderer’s row’ of heavy hitters in the army and with three pitchers among those for whom the service stars wave, (they) still have an ‘ace’ to send out on the mound—Satchel Paige.”36 The Kansas City Monarchs were participants in two of the four official league games held in Davenport in 1944, with the Cincinnati Clowns featured in the other two games. Along with the games, a new promotion was added during the season. “The sideline features will be a jitterbug contest on a platform in front of the home plate and a bathing beauty contest for Negro participants. This program is expected to pack the park.”37 A crowd of 2,300 watched the Monarchs defeat the Chicago American Giants, 9-0, but also cheered for the participants in the jitterbug contest as the game summary described the dance contest in some detail.38

The anticipated highlight for the one official game played in 1945 in Davenport was Jackie Robinson. “The Monarchs have Jackie Robinson, a former UCLA grid great, at shortstop and the young man has been playing sensationally ever since he joined the Monarchs early this spring after receiving his medical discharge from the army…Robinson has been hailed as the greatest rookie in the Negro baseball circles this season. He is batting at a .349 clip and has a powerful throwing arm.”39 The Chicago American Giants defeated the Monarchs, 8-7. “But there was something more important happening. ‘Many of the fans,’ one sports writer wrote, ‘were disappointed by the absence of Jackie Robinson, much publicized shortstop for the Monarchs.’ Robinson was in Brooklyn [meeting] with Branch Rickey and the Brooklyn Dodgers.”40

Three Negro American League games were played in Davenport in the final season designated as major league contests. All three games featured the Kansas City Monarchs and their new shortstop Gene Baker, a graduate of Davenport High School.41 Baker would later play for the Chicago Cubs and team with fellow Monarch Ernie Banks to form the first black keystone combination in one of the formerly segregated major leagues.42 Led by Baker’s six hits over the three games, the Monarchs won two of three.43

On the Western side of the state, Council Bluffs looked to cash in on the crowds generated by traveling Negro League teams. However, the community’s Legion Park lacked adequate lights for the preferred night games. The Rainbow American Legion Post voted in November 1945 to install “the best lighting system…at a cost of between $8,000 and $9,000…With installation of lights assured, Rainbow post plans to bring some outstanding baseball attractions here in 1946,” proclaimed the Nonpareil. “It is probable that clubs in both the American and National Negro leagues will play some of their official league games here during the summer.”44

Their effort to bring in fans after installing the new lighting system was rewarded in July 1946. “Indianapolis Clowns defeated Kansas City Monarchs 9 to 6 in a Negro American league ball game at American Legion park here Tuesday night before a crowd of 4,000, by far the largest of the season,” crowed the game recap in the Nonpareil. The Monarch’s lineup was still stocked with many future Hall of Famers, including pitcher Hilton Smith. However, on this particular day Smith played right field. He went 2-for-5, and barely missed hitting a game-tying three-run homer in the bottom of the ninth.45

The Monarchs returned to Council Bluffs in the spring of 1947 and were shut out on three hits by the Chicago American Giants despite a roster that included Willard Brown and Henry Thompson—who would be signed by the St. Louis Browns later that season.46 The Indianapolis Clowns brought their legendary antics back to the Bluffs in August and an overflow crowd of 4,079 saw them fall to the Monarchs, 9-547

In their final season as a major league-caliber team, the Kansas City Monarchs split the two official Negro American League games they played in Council Bluffs.48 But a national story involving their legendary pitcher, Satchel Paige, dominated the headlines. Although nominally a Kansas City Monarch from 1935-36 and 1939-48, in his final years affiliated with the Monarchs, Paige mainly barnstormed on his own, primarily with his Satchel Paige All-Stars. While his old team was losing to their archrivals, the Chicago American Giants, in Council Bluffs on July 7, 1948, “Leroy (Satchel) Paige, 39-year-old [sic] top-flight negro pitcher of 20 years standing, today was signed by the Cleveland Indians, President Bill Veeck announced. Terms of the deal in which the venerable hurler moves up from the Kansas City Monarchs of the Negro National league were not disclosed. But Paige admits he will make more money with the Indians.”49,50

Sioux City hosted at least two official games. After playing against each other in Des Moines on July 7, 1939, the Kansas City Monarchs and the St. Louis Stars faced off again three days later at Stock Yard Ball Park in Sioux City. An ad for the game incorrectly identified the Stars as the Giants and that both teams were members of the Colored National League.51 The Monarchs scored a single tally in the bottom of the eighth on a pair of doubles to win the game, 1-0.52

Eight years later, the Monarchs and the Indianapolis Clowns met in Sioux City the day before they took the 90-mile trip down to Council Bluffs for a game. The Sioux City Journal helped sell the attraction by emphasizing the “brilliant record” of the Monarchs along with the endorsement that “The Clowns claim to have two of the funniest men in baseball—King Tut and Goose Tatum. Tut is the No. 1 cutter-upper and Clown fans declare that laughter could be heard for blocks around Blues stadium (Kansas City) when the Clowns and Monarchs played.”53 The next day’s newspaper reported, “Kansas City’s Monarchs defeated the Indianapolis Clowns, 4 to 1, Monday night in a Negro American league game played at Soos park before a crowd of about 4,000 fans.”54

Charles City, a community with a population of approximately 8,000, hosted what is now an official major league game in 1939. “Negro Aces to Play in Tuesday Night Game on Lion Field” read the headline of the preview article. “The strong Crawfords took a doubleheader from the Kansas City Monarchs Sunday, and will feature the slugging of Oscar Charleston, husky outfield ace.”55

“The fans assembled last night, one of the largest crowds of the season, enjoyed their money’s worth.” extolled the Charles City Press. The Crawfords were trailing 3-1 going into the bottom of the ninth. A double, an error and a single, sandwiched around two outs set the stage for a walk-off home run and a 5-3 win.56

The historic game in Dyersville, Iowa, in 2021 between the Chicago White Sox and the New York Yankees was significant not because it was the first major league game played in Iowa, but because it signified the return of major league baseball to Iowa. By 2022, with a game between the Chicago Cubs and the Cincinnati Reds, the message had changed. “Major League Baseball on Thursday returned to Dyersville, Iowa, the site of the classic movie Field of Dreams, for the Field of Dreams Game,” FoxSports reported. “Last year’s matchup between the New York Yankees and Chicago White Sox featured a host of magical moments. Thursday night’s game was no different, as the Chicago Cubs and Cincinnati Reds met in a closely fought contest.”57 

JOHN SHOREY is a history professor emeritus from Iowa Western Community College where he taught an elective course on Baseball and American Culture for 20 years. He has written articles and chapters on a variety of baseball topics for various publications, including Baseball Digest. He has presented his research at the Cooperstown Symposium on Baseball and American Culture along with other baseball conferences.

KEVIN WARNEKE, who earned his doctoral degree from the University of Nebraska-Lincoln, is a fund raiser based in Omaha, Nebraska. He co-wrote The Call to the Hall, which tells the story of when baseball’s highest honor came to 31 legends of the game.

 

Notes

1. Washington Post, www.washingtonpost.com/sports/2021/08/12/mlb-iowa-field-dreams-game, accessed December 21, 2022.

2. USA Today, https://sports.yahoo.com/mlb-field-dreams-game-2021-102502920.html?src=rss, accessed December 21, 2022.

3. Des Moines Register, www.desmoinesregister.com/story/sports/baseball/2021/08/08/field-of-dreams-game-mlb-movie-site-dyersville-chicago-white-sox-new-york-yankees-tickets/5467520001, accessed December 21, 2022.

4. John Thorn, tweet of August 21, 2021, https://twitter.com/thom_john/status/1425441694481330179.

5. MLB. Press release, December 16, 2020. “MLB Officially Designates the Negros Leagues as Major League.” MLB.Com, www.mlb.com/press-release/press-release-mlb-officially-designates-the-negro-leagues-as-major-league, accessed December 21, 2022.

6. Retrosheet was founded in 1989 for the purpose of computerizing play-by-play accounts of as many pre-1984 major league games as possible. In January 2021, after the announcement by Major League Baseball elevating seven Negro Leagues to MLB status, Retrosheet is working on documenting official Negro League games starting in 1948 and working back towards the inaugural 1920 season.

7. Tom Thress, telephone interview, January 25, 2023.

8. The last of the seven Negro Leagues recognized by MLB as major league caliber was created in 1937. That league, the Negro American League, included two of the Negro League teams from the original 1920 Negro National League: the Chicago American Giants and the Kansas City Monarchs.

9. “Negro Teams to Play Exhibition in June,” Des Moines Tribune, May 25, 1926, 21.

10. “Negro Teams to Play Here,” Des Moines Register, May 16, 1937, 24. Note that throughout the article, the capitalization usage is retained from the original newspaper articles.

11. In his column Sec Taylor incorrectly identified the teams as being members of the Negro National League. A preview story of the game a week later also incorrectly identified the league as the Negro National League. The summary story of the first game played in Iowa finally correctly identified the teams as members of the Negro American League.

12. Sec Taylor, “Negro Stars Play Here,” Des Moines Register, May 18, 1937, 7.

13. “Negroes Play Contests Here,” Des Moines Register, May 25, 1937, 8.

14. “Negroes Play Here Tonight,” Des Moines Register, May 26, 1937, 9.

15. “Barons Defeat Tigers, 8 to 4,” Des Moines Register, May 28, 1937, 17.

16. “Monarchs to Play Giants,” Des Moines Tribune, July 21, 1938, 19.

17. Sec Taylor, “Good Baseball Booked,” Des Moines Register, July 25, 1938, 5.

18. Sec Taylor, “Giants Beat Monarchs, 11-4,” Des Moines Register, July 29, 1938, 9.

19. “Brown’s Bat Lets Monarch Club Win, 11-2,” Des Moines Register, May 27, 1939, 7.

20. “Stars’ Fielding Wins 9-5 Game,” Des Moines Register, July 8, 1939, 7.

21. “Crack Negro Nines Clash Here Tonight,” Des Moines Register, July 28, 1939, 9.

22. “Kansas City’s Negro Team Beats Chicago,” Des Moines Register, July 29, 1939, 9.

23. Brad Wilson, “Monarchs Beat Giants, 7-3,” Des Moines Register, June 11, 1940, 14.

24. “A Robinson To Play Here,” Des Moines Tribune, July 29, 1947, 12.

25. Bob Thompson, “Monarch Rally Clips Memphis,” Des Moines Register, June 25, 1948, 18.

26. “Birmingham Black Barons Will Meet Jacksonville Red Caps Here Monday,” Daily Times (Davenport, Iowa), July 10, 1941, 18.

27. Birmingham Trips Loop Rivals, 8-3,” Quad-City Times (Davenport, Iowa), July 15, 1941, 8.

28. Newspaper stories leading up to the game misidentified the team from St. Louis as the St. Louis Blues instead of its correct name, which was the St. Louis Stars.

29. “Monarchs-Blues Game Here to Be League Contest,” Daily Times, August 7, 1941, 20.

30. Jerry Jurgens, “Stars Rally in Seventh to Nip Monarchs, 7-3,” Daily times, August 13, 1941, 28.

31. “Clowns to Meet Memphis Team Here,” Daily times, July 15, 1943, 15.

32. “Famed Rocking Chair Catcher of Clowns To Be Here July 20,” Daily Times, July 16, 1943, 22.

33. Francis M’Wane, “Red Sox Score 4 Runs in Opening Inning; Win 6-1,” Daily Times, July 21, 1943, 16.

34. “Speed Events on Wednesday Show At Muny Stadium,” Daily Times, July 31, 1943, 9.

35. Francis McWane, “Clowns Score Three Runs in Seventh to Defeat Black Barons,” Daily Times, August 5, 1943, 16. (The byline name was spelled differently from the one listed in the July 21, 1943 story, and back to the different spelling in the June 2, 1944 story.)

36. Sam Smith, “Despite Draft, Monarchs Carry On,” Des Moines Tribune, January 6, 1944, 19.

37. “Another Game,” Quad-City Times, May 26, 1944, 16.

38. Francis M’Wane, “Monarchs Trim Chicago Negro Team by 9 to 0,” Daily Times, June 2, 1944, 26.

39. “Negro Stars Here Tuesday For Ball Game,” Daily Times, August 24, 1945, 24.

40. Joe Posnanski, The Baseball 100 (New York, NY: Avid Reader Press, 2021), 423. The original quote says Robinson was in Brooklyn signing his contract with the Dodgers, but nothing was signed until October, when he signed his contract with the Montreal Royals, a Dodgers farm club.

41. “Gene Baker Rated as Best Shortstop On Monarchs Since Jackie Robinson; Plays Against Clowns Here May 30th,” Daily Times, May 18, 1948, 16.

42. James A. Riley, The Biographical Encyclopedia of The Negro Baseball Leagues (New York, NY: Carroll & Graf Publishers, Inc., 1994), 46.

43. Retrosheet.org, https://www.retrosheet.org/NegroLeagues/boxe-setc/1948/Bbakeg1011948.htm, accessed December 23, 2022.

44. “Rainbow Post to Arclight Legion Park,” Council Bluffs Nonpareil, November 15, 1945, 1.

45. “Clowns Beat Monarchs in Long Battle,” Council Bluffs Nonpareil, July 24, 1946, 10.

46. “Monarchs Held to Three Hits,” Council Bluffs Nonpareil, May 24, 1947, 7.

47. “Monarchs Defeat Clowns; Overflow Crowd Watches,” Council Bluffs Nonpareil, August 20, 1947, 9.

48. Retrosheet.org, https://www.retrosheet.org/NegroLeagues/boxesetc/1948/1948GL.htm, accessed December 23, 2022.

49. The Kansas City Monarchs were members of the Negro American League in 1948.

50. “‘Ole’ Satch Signs With Cleveland As Relief Hurler,” Oelwein Daily Register, July 7, 1948, 4.

51. “Baseball,” Sioux City Journal, July 10, 1939, 7.

52. “Monarchs Win Over St. Louis Stars Here, 1-0,” Sioux City Journal, July 11, 1939, 12.

53. “Negro Teams to Combine Humor and Fast Baseball,” Sioux City Journal, August 16, 1947, 6.

54. “Clowns Fall To Monarchs,” Sioux City Journal, August 19, 1947, 10.

55. “Negro Aces to Play in Tuesday Night Game on Lion Field,” Globe-Gazette (Mason City, Iowa), August 14, 1939, 10.

56. “Large Crowd Watches Fast Negro Teams,” Charles City Press and Evening Intelligencer, August 16, 1939, 2.

57. FoxSports, www.foxsports.com/stories/mlb/field-of-dreams-game-2022-top-moments-from-cubs-reds, accessed December 21, 2022.