Daily Operations in the United States Negro Baseball League, 1945–46

Gus Greenlee, in hat and tie, shown here with some members of his Pittsburgh Crawfords team. (SABR-Rucker Archive)

 

The United States Negro Baseball League is mostly known for its minor role in the Jackie Robinson story. It was famously backed by Branch Rickey in 1945, possibly for use as a cover for the Brooklyn Dodgers to scout Black players or to test the White public’s reaction to Black players in Brooklyn and Montreal.1

Little research has been done on how the league operated on a day-to-day basis. One can find contradictory information about the league, even for basic questions, such as the identity of the teams in the league or even whether the 1946 season was played in full, partially, or not all.2 Because of the barnstorming nature of the USL, as it was generally abbreviated, and no better than spotty coverage of it in the Black press, research has proven difficult. Nonetheless, increased digitization and improved indexing of newspapers mean we can investigate how the league operated.

This new portrait allows us to see that the league labored through its two seasons, struggling to find its place in the Black baseball scene. Surprisingly, given its name, it found more success attracting crowds in Canada, a development that played a role in finding a destination for Black players after the demise of the Negro Leagues.

GETTING ORGANIZED

The USL was the brainchild of Gus Greenlee, former owner of the Pittsburgh Crawfords. Greenlee had sold the team amid tough times following the 1938 season, after which the club moved to Toledo. He had attempted to get back into baseball in 1944 by resurrecting the Crawfords as an independent team. Unable to secure a franchise in the Negro National League, Greenlee built a six-team league for the 1945 season.3 While some of the clubs announced in January backed out in the next few months, the league started its operations in mid-May with the Crawfords joined by the Detroit Motor City Giants, Toledo Cubs, Chicago Brown Bombers, Philadelphia Hilldales, and Brooklyn Brown Dodgers.

The notion of home city was vague in the USL. The league was based on the principle that whenever two league teams played each other, it would count as a league game. This meant that the teams were almost always barnstorming, and rarely if ever playing in the city they represented. Most league games were played in the Northeast and the Midwest, but the league also ventured to the South (Texas, Mississippi, Alabama) and Canada, mostly to Quebec but also to Manitoba and Ontario.

Rickey, in his public support of the league, had approved the use of the stadiums of the Dodgers’ 22 farm teams, which helps explain the constant barnstorming. But while the league used the ballparks in the Dodgers’ system in Olean, New York; Trois-Rivières and Montreal, Quebec; Newport News, Virginia; Asheville, North Carolina; Fort Worth, Texas; and St. Paul, Minnesota; they also played in many other cities.

The intention was to make a marquee team out of the Brooklyn Brown Dodgers, but they had the disadvantage of starting from scratch, while other teams had operated as independent clubs the previous year. To accelerate the Brown Dodgers’ development, the Hilldale Giants of Philadelphia, who had made a splash by signing Oscar Charleston as manager, were swapped to Brooklyn.4 A new version of the Hilldales was put together in time for the start of the season.5 At age 48, Charleston’s playing days were over, although he made a pinch-hit appearance for the Brown Dodgers in a game in Brooklyn in June.

The league struggled to attract top talent and mostly recruited from the fringes of the Negro Leagues. Apart from Charleston, the only other big name was 44-year-old Turkey Stearnes, who played regularly for Toledo. Some of the promising rookies included Luke Easter (Detroit), Stanley Glenn (Brooklyn), and Everett Marcel (Philadelphia).

Greenlee’s Crawfords were the cream of the league. Boasting a core of young and promising players, the team, which had enjoyed considerable success as an independent club in 1944, dominated the USL.6 The Crawfords featured Eudie Napier behind the plate, Maurice Peatros at first base, Joe Atkins at third base, and Fred Morefield and Cuban import Jose Colas in the outfield. On the mound, the star was Willie Pope, a tall left-hander the league tried to sell as the next Satchel Paige. The deep staff also included Cecil Kaiser and 42-year-old Joe Strong.

Trying to generate publicity, the USL did its best to stay in the news. First, it publicly invited Happy Chandler, Ford Frick, William Harridge, and the presidents of the Negro National and American Leagues to the season opener.7 There is no evidence that any of them acknowledged the invitations. A few weeks later, league officials announced that they had instituted a new rule that forced teams to throw a strike before issuing an intentional walk.8 No further mention of the rule was made.

1945 SEASON

After a few exhibition games, the league opened its activities on May 20, 1945, with games in Detroit, Toledo, and Pittsburgh. While the doubleheader in Dequindre Park in Detroit drew reasonably well (reported attendance of 5,000), the draws were disappointing in Toledo (2,000) and Pittsburgh (2,500).9 On May 24, the league debuted in Ebbets Field in Brooklyn to a disappointing reported crowd of 2,000 as the Brown Dodgers defeated the Philadelphia Hilldales, 3–2. The next event in Brooklyn, a May 30 doubleheader against the Detroit Giants, drew either 2,000 (Brooklyn Daily Eagle) or 8,000 (New York Age).10

In these first few weeks, the league mostly stayed in the Northeast, with games in Buffalo, New York; Harrisburg, Pennsylvania; and Hagerstown, Maryland, as well as a game at Braves Field in Boston between the Crawfords and the Hilldales. After that, new markets were explored. The Chicago Brown Bombers and Toledo Cubs headed south, playing in Oklahoma City, Oklahoma; Dallas and Fort Worth, Texas; Memphis, Tennessee; Little Rock, Arkansas; Montgomery and Birmingham, Alabama; and Jackson, Mississippi. They attracted their biggest draw for a doubleheader in Dallas, playing in front of 6,000.11 Jesse Owens, former Olympian and part-owner of the Toledo Cubs, toured with the teams, providing various exhibitions such as racing against relay teams of ballplayers or even against racehorses. Owens’s presence did generate publicity, but since newspaper coverage tended to focus almost exclusively on him, it might have overshadowed the league.12 Owens, the Cubs, and the Brown Bombers were part of the Juneteenth celebration at Buff Stadium in Houston.13

Meanwhile, the Crawfords and the Hilldales headed north of the border for games in Montreal, Quebec, and Toronto and Hamilton, Ontario. The Montreal doubleheader drew a big crowd of 7,465.14 However, the level of play was called disappointing by the media and controversy arose as newspaper Le Samedi accused the teams of scamming fans. With many fans wanting to bet on the game but not knowing the teams, a substantial crowd showed up for pregame warm-ups and infield practice, where it was soon apparent to most observers that the Hilldales were the superior team. Suspicions should have arisen when most could find willing takers for bets on the Hilldales. The Crawfords easily swept the doubleheader, leaving fans with empty pockets and a sour taste in their mouths.15

In May 1945, the league had received coverage in the Black press that was roughly on par with the Negro National and American Leagues. Coverage decreased substantially in June as it became apparent that the USL was not on the same level as its more established rivals.21 While the league, and particularly the Crawfords, were adept at generating advanced publicity for games by drawing on the history and reputations of the old Crawfords and Hilldales, a recurrent comment was that games had not lived up to expectations, which made repeat business a particularly challenging task.22

The Chicago Brown Bombers—seemingly the weakest team in the league, with a record of 6–18 among league games recovered in the newspapers—disappeared from the press for most of August, but most of their roster soon showed up with the New Orleans Crescent Stars.24 In what appears to be a poor attempt at rebranding, fans were warned that the Crescent Stars would play in Chicago uniforms after losing theirs on a trip north.25 Given how poorly the Brown Bombers had played, it might have seemed a good strategy to adopt the identity of a famous independent team to attract larger crowds, but no mention is made of the Crescent Stars joining the USL. The Brown Bombers recovered their identity for a few exhibition games in late August, but no league game has been found after July 22, when they appeared in a three-team doubleheader at Ebbets Field.26

That event in Brooklyn was the occasion for a reboot of the Brown Dodgers, now managed by Webster McDonald, who had a long career as a pitcher in the 1930s, mostly with the Philadelphia Stars of the Negro National League.27 Having had little success with second engagements in Detroit and Pittsburgh in June, the USL teams didn’t rent any other major league parks other than Ebbets Field for the remainder of the season. A crowd of 7,000 saw the Crawfords beat both the Brown Dodgers and Brown Bombers in the doubleheader on July 22. Still at Ebbets Field, an August 5 doubleheader featured the Detroit Giants, in one of their only trips to the East Coast, while a September 9 event featured the Crawfords, Brown Dodgers, and the Knoxville Grays of the Negro Southern League.

The publicity claim that the Crawfords and Brown Dodgers were virtually tied for first place was pushed to sell tickets for their trip to upstate New York and Quebec.28 However, by calculating the standings from the game scores reported in the various newspapers, we obtain a much different portrait: The Crawfords had a record of 38–7, while the Brown Dodgers were 8–14. The Hilldales (20–18) were the only other team with a winning record among recovered games. The Crawfords won all six games on the trip, leaving no doubt about their dominance.

A return trip to Montreal in July had been rained out, although the Crawfords and Brown Bombers had successful exhibitions in Quebec City and Sherbrooke, Quebec.29 The August trip was again hindered by bad weather that twice postponed the game in Montreal, which eventually drew a disappointing crowd of 1,000.30 But they did well again in Quebec City, attracting 3,500, reportedly the largest crowd there since the beginning of the war.31

 

Oscar Charleston was one of the most prodigious hitters in the Negro Leagues over the course of his career. In the over 900 games we have stats from, spanning age 23 to 44, he compiled over 48 WAR and OPS+ of 185. (SABR-Rucker Archive)

 

After the appearance of the Knoxville Grays in Brooklyn, there was momentum for collaboration with the Negro Southern League, which was also in the midst of its first season, the original league of that name having disbanded following the 1936 season. In early September, the Hilldales toured the South, playing against the Asheville Blues and the Atlanta Black Crackers.32 Plans for a North-South All-Star Game on September 16 at Ebbets Field were announced, to rival the classic East-West game.33 The collaboration did not please the authorities of the Negro National and American Leagues. While the United States Negro Baseball League was not on good terms with the established Negro Leagues, the Negro Southern League was, opting to act as a minor league. Threatened with a boycott, the Southern League backed out of the project.34 Still, a few weeks later, the Crawfords visited the Grays in Knoxville.35

After the Crawfords easily dismissed any contenders for the league crown, league games stopped. Teams, however, continued to barnstorm for a while and the Crawfords were again the most active. In early September, they accompanied the Honus Wagner All Stars, a barnstorming team of former major- and minor-leaguers managed by the Hall of Famer, through North Dakota and Manitoba. The game in Fargo attracted 7,500 fans, the highest estimated attendance of the season.36 The four-game set in Winnipeg also drew well, with the two teams splitting the series. After a quick trip through Brooklyn, the Crawfords moved south, playing exhibition games in Tennessee, Texas, and even in some border cities in Mexico. The last mention in 1945 newspapers mentions a three-game series in Ciudad Juarez.37

1945–46 OFFSEASON

The baseball world was shaken in October 1945 when Rickey and the Dodgers announced the signing of Robinson. Newspaper accounts of the signing mention the United States Negro Baseball League, such as a story from the Associated Press that mentioned the Brown Dodgers and how Rickey could scout Black players for that team.38 The California Eagle’s Eddie Burbridge also editorialized that Greenlee had played a role in the operation, if only by getting the ear of Rickey and getting him interested in the plight of the Negro Leagues.39 The media exposure was not all good: Burbridge called the USL ill-fated. Additionally, in an article in which Negro Leagues authorities were condemning Rickey for signing their players without compensations, the Baltimore Afro-American added an editor’s note to (mistakenly) inform their readers that the USL “failed to function after about five weeks of play.”40 But the league was not dead, and USL officials even attended Robinson’s historic debut for the Montreal Royals in Jersey City the next spring.41

Forcing his way back in the Negro National League was still the preferred outcome for Greenlee. In the offseason, he tried to convince his former colleagues to accept his proposal for two new franchises, based in Brooklyn and Montreal. While considered, the proposal was rejected; the market in New York City was already crowded, and Montreal (like Boston, also mentioned) had a small black population.42

Greenlee thus reorganized his USL for 1946, with the Crawfords and the Brown Dodgers returning, alongside two new teams, the Boston Blues and the Cleveland Clippers. The Blues were owned by Allen Johnson, who had owned various teams in the past, including the 1939 St. Louis Stars of the Negro American League.43 The two new teams barely tested their new grounds, mostly playing on the road. Two events were scheduled at Cleveland’s League Park, with one rained out, and no report of games in Boston have been found.44

Meanwhile, the Crawfords alternated between Pittsburgh and Montreal, using the whole province of Quebec as part of its home base. When a league representative traveled to Montreal ahead of an upcoming series, he put forward long-term plans, never to be realized, to put teams in Toronto and Quebec City and rename the league the International Negro League.45

1946 SEASON

While the Crawfords lost some of their top players, they added Willie Pope’s younger brother Dave, on his way to four seasons with the Cleveland Indians and Baltimore Orioles, and pitcher/outfielder Ted Toles. Now managed by Red Parnell, the Crawfords were surprised in the season-opening series by the Boston Blues, who swept the three games, including a doubleheader at Forbes Field.46 For Boston, manager and veteran Negro Leaguer Tom “Big Train” Parker had amassed a solid collection of players, including Ed Mayweather, an All-Star in 1937 and 1940, Johnny Hayes, Jesse Warren, and Emmett Wilson. The deep pitching staff featured LeRoy Sutton, Chip McAllister, and Ross “Satchel” Davis. Davis had been a strong prospect who, like many others, had had his career derailed by military service. He enjoyed a standout season in 1946 as the ace of the Blues.

The remaining two teams, however, were struggling. Once again, the Brown Dodgers failed to live up to the Branch Rickey affiliation. While they poached Willie Hubert from the Crawfords and veteran catcher Roy Gaston from the Homestead Grays, the team, managed by Bob “Killer” Palm, started the season slowly, as they had in 1945. A wire story from the Associated Press allows us to learn of the extreme measures taken to improve the team. For example, when the Brown Dodgers wanted to add pitcher Doc Bracken from the independent St. Louis Giants, they ended up buying the whole team to guarantee his services.47 Meanwhile, the Cleveland Clippers, managed by Jim Binder, still only had one win in early July. David “Speed” Whatley and Raymond Taylor were among the few Negro League veterans on the team, along with Chip McAllister, signed away from the Crawfords.

The Crawfords spent the first half of June in their new home in Quebec, hosting the Blues and later the Clippers. During that trip, the Crawfords played an exhibition game against the Sherbrooke Canadiens of the Class C Border League. Only 100 fans showed up on a cold, rainy night, but the game was meaningful. Not only is this the only reported game against a team in the National Association of Professional Baseball Leagues (NAPBL), the umbrella organization for the affiliated minor leagues, but the Canadiens were one of the NAPBL’s four integrated teams that year, as Manny McIntyre was the shortstop for the Canadiens. McIntyre, a native of New Brunswick, was better known as a hockey player. He had starred on the local senior team that winter, pairing with brothers Ossie and Herb Carnegie to form an all-Black line, known as the Black Aces. The Crawfords lost the game, 11–7.48 On the same trip, the Crawfords also played leagues games in Trois-Rivières and Montreal, hosts of two of the other three integrated minor league teams. The Crawfords and Blues also ventured to Jonquière, about 135 miles north of Quebec City. This was a region never before visited by barnstorming teams and a region that had rarely seen any Black people, much less 20 of them.49 Compared to 1945, the attendance was not as big in Montreal (3,200) but it was stable in Quebec City (3,000).50 Lloyd McGowan of the Montreal Gazette recognized that the games were better than in 1945, but noted that “they will have to put more life into their game if they hope to draw here.… They don’t hustle, fail to back up the bases. This isn’t surprising, for the players make many of their hops through the night by bus, catching sleep as they roll.”51

Both games were among the biggest reported draws of the season, but the biggest was a June 9 doubleheader at Ebbets Field. Unfortunately, the 5,000 fans saw the hometown Brown Dodgers easily swept by the Blues.52

Two big trips were organized in the second half of June. The Crawfords made their way back to Winnipeg, with stops in Minnesota and Wisconsin along the way. They were accompanied by the Clippers on a trip that had been planned at least a month prior.53 Meanwhile, the Blues and Brown Dodgers travelled south, all the way to Alexandria, Louisiana, hometown of Blues manager Tom Parker. The trip included stops in Kentucky and Texas.

While the Crawfords played a Fourth of July doubleheader against the famous House of David team in Louisville, a three-team doubleheader was organized at Ebbets Field. The independent Milwaukee Tigers surprised the Blues in the first game before losing to the Brown Dodgers in the second.

On July 6, the Chicago Defender published standings that showed the Crawfords and Blues tied with 18–8 records, with the Brown Dodgers (7–15) and Clippers (1–13) far behind.54 Just a few days earlier, the Clippers had enjoyed their second win of the season, 5–4 over the Crawfords in Eau Claire, Wisconsin. But with the Milwaukee Tigers making a good impression, it was announced in mid-July that the Brown Dodgers and Clippers would consolidate under the Brown Dodgers name and that the Tigers would take the fourth spot in the league.55

The Crawfords switched into high gear in the second half. After losing the first game of their series against the Blues, they won the last four games before winning nine out of 10 against the newly consolidated Brown Dodgers. The series featured two doubleheaders in Brooklyn, one in Montreal and a game at Forbes Field. One of the doubleheaders in Brooklyn drew reasonably well (3,000 spectators) but the one in Montreal did not (1,395).56 Fred Johnson threw a no-hitter against the Brown Dodgers at Ebbets Field.57 A new market visited was Kingston, Ontario, which responded with a decent crowd of 2,400.58

Meanwhile, the Blues and Tigers were in the Midwest. During a visit to Waterloo, Iowa, on July 21, the Waterloo Courier offered a rare glimpse of the finances associated with a typical game. A crowd of 1,537 was reported, with $88.29 being paid for the use of the ballpark, and the two teams walking away with a total of $606.92.59 These details help us to better understand the daily realities of teams in the league.

The last standings published in the media are from the St. Louis Argus in early August, showing the Crawfords (31–11) and Blues (27–14) in a close fight for the lead, with the Brown Dodgers (9–25) and Milwaukee Tigers (1–4) far behind.60 Unceremoniously, the league moved in the second half of August to a final series between the Crawfords and the Blues to determine the champion.61 The first six games were split, including one of the biggest draws of the season (4,000) in Binghamton, New York.62 A final trip was planned to Quebec, but the Montreal game only received spotty coverage by the local press and the Quebec City doubleheader drew only 721 fans.63 After multiple trips in the province and with the Montreal Royals in the midst of a historic season, it probably was a one trip too many. Still, the Crawfords swept the Blues in what the press called a pennant-clinching win.64

Freed of their league obligations, the Crawfords moved south and seem to have established a base in Louisville, where they had drawn well in 1945. They organized a number of doubleheaders in September and October. Their opponents included the Knoxville Grays of the Negro Southern League, the Detroit Giants (back as an independent team), and the Zulu Cannibal Giants, a controversial novelty team. The Crawfords also travelled to Asheville to face the Negro Southern League’s Blues.65 Meanwhile, the Boston Blues returned “home,” closing the season not in Boston but against local teams in Cairo and Murphysboro, Illinois, near owner Allen Johnson’s home in Mounds.

A few players got a chance to play for a few more weeks as part of the Jackie Robinson All-Stars, with many USL players acting as support staff. Emmet Wilson, Robert Scott, Ernest Smith and LeRoy Sutton of the Blues, Willie Pope of the Crawfords, and Harvey Peterson of Brown Dodgers toured with Robinson, mostly in California.66

While no newspaper reports came of the league stopping its operations, it never returned. As late as October 30, 1946, league officials took out an ad in The Sporting News congratulating the magazine for its diamond jubilee.67 With Greenlee weakened by a heart attack in July and Rickey bringing Robinson to Brooklyn, there didn’t appear to be a desire—or money—for another season.68

POST 1946

As Robinson was breaking the color line in the National League in 1947, the former USL players had to find new homes. While the best players and prospects found their way to the more established Negro Leagues, some others stayed with Johnson, the former Blues owner, who relaunched his St. Louis Stars as an independent team featuring many of his former players.69 The Pittsburgh Crawfords were briefly reorganized for a doubleheader in Louisville in August 1947, proudly announced as Gus Greenlee’s two-time USL champions.70 They were swept by the independent Cincinnati Chivos, with no details of their roster surviving.71

This new look at the daily operations and rosters of the USL allows us to see one of its indirect impacts on the Negro Leagues. In 1947, the Farnham Pirates integrated the Quebec Provincial League, a top league outside of the NAPBL, by signing four former USL players: outfielder Fred Morefield, infielder Jimmy Johnson, and pitcher Fred Johnson of the Crawfords, and pitcher LeRoy Sutton of the Blues.72 While it’s not clear how the link between Farnham and the USL was built, it seems likely that connections occurred while the Crawfords toured the province: Farnham is about 35 miles from Montreal, and a mere 15 miles of St. Jean, where the Crawfords played in 1946.

Between 1948 and 1951, the QPL became a prime destination for former players of the struggling Negro Leagues, with Farnham at the center of that relationship. The Provincial League joined the NAPBL in 1950 as a Class C league. It is with Farnham that Sam Bankhead became the first Black manager in the NAPBL in 1951.

Pitcher Willie Pope, arguably the most dominant player in the short history of the USL, spent 1947 with the Homestead Grays, and most of 1948–51 in the Provincial League. But he returned to the Homestead Grays for a few weeks in 1948, just in time to help them capture the last Negro League World Series over the Birmingham Black Barons.

Gus Greenlee, who had been the driving force behind the USL, died in 1952. The Negro American League was still in operation, but only a shell of its former self, while the Negro National League had ceased operation after that 1948 World Series.

The United States Negro Baseball League is most often thought of as a footnote to the events leading to Jackie Robinson’s signing and the eventual demise of the Negro Leagues. The recent availability of digitized and indexed newspapers shows that the league struggled in its two years of existence, failing on Rickey’s promise to improve on the shortcomings of the more established Negro Leagues. 

CHRISTIAN TRUDEAU is a professor of economics at the University of Windsor. He is a game theory specialist by day, and a historian of Quebec baseball by night. He is a co-editor of the Journal of Canadian Baseball/Revue du baseball canadien.

 

Acknowledgments

The author thanks Gary Gillette, Will Clark, Johnny Haynes, Heidi LM Jacobs, and participants of the 2022 Center for Canadian Baseball Research conference for comments on early versions of this article.

 

Sources

Research was done in as many newspapers as could be found. They include those indexed by Newspapers.com, NewspaperArchive, GenealogyBank, the Fulton History Newspapers database, the Bibliothèque Nationale du Québec newspaper archives, ProQuest Historical Newspapers, and The Sporting News archives. Other resources used include Baseball Reference, the Seamheads Negro Leagues database and the Center for Negro Leagues Research resources.

 

Notes

1. Some doubts remain about Rickey’s intentions. See for instance Jules Tygiel and John Thorn, “Jackie Robinson’s Signing: The Real Story,” in From Rube to Robinson: SABR’s Best Articles on Black Baseball, ed. John Graf (Phoenix: Society for American Baseball Research, 2021); Neal Lanctot, Negro League Baseball: The Rise and Ruin of a Black Institution (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2008), 266–70.

2. See for example the rosters in Dick Clark, Larry Lester, eds., The Negro Leagues Book (Phoenix: Society for American Baseball Research, 1994), and at the Center for Negro League Baseball Research website, https://www.cnlbr.org/.

3. Lanctot, Negro League Baseball, 263–64.

4. “Oscar Charleston Signs as U.S. League Pilot,” Baltimore Afro-American, February 24, 1945, 14.

5. Lanctot, 266.

6. “Negro Teams from East to Play Here on Monday Night,” Davenport Daily Times, August 25, 1944, 28.

7. “United States League Plays In 3 Cities Sunday, New Rules, Plans Devised in Official Meeting,” Cleveland Call and Post, May 19, 1945, 19.

8. Buffalo Evening News, May 28, 1945, 16.

9. “Motor City Giants Sweep Double Bill,” Detroit Free Press, May 21, 1945, 13; “2,000 See Cubs Beat Hilldales,” Toledo Blade, May 21, 1945, 16; “Crawfords Split, Grays Win Two,” Pittsburgh Sun-Telegraph, May 21, 1945, 14.

10. “Brown Dodgers Make It 3 In a Row Drubbing Detroit,” Brooklyn Daily Eagle, May 31, 1945, 16; “B’Klyn Brown Dodgers Take Doubleheader,” New York Age, June 9, 1945, 11.

11. “6000 Fans Turn Out For Owens, Doubleheader,” Houston Chronicle, June 20, 1945, 18.

12. A particularly egregious example occurs in South Dakota in July, where the Sioux Falls Argus-Leader mentions that the game ended 15–14, without further details like the winning team. The rest of the article is devoted to Owens. “Owens Gives Brief Display; Game is 15–14,” Sioux Falls Argus Leader, July 19, 1945, 11.

13. “‘Juneteenth’ Party to End All Parties Is Set In Buff Park,” Houston Chronicle, June 13, 1945, 20.

14. The attendance was first reported as 8,000, then 7,500. The precise number is revealed in an article hyping a third visit to Montreal in August 1945. “Brown Dodgers contre Crawfords,” Le Devoir (Montreal), August 25, 1945, 11.

15. Oscar Major, “Dans le Monde Sportif,” Le Samedi (Montreal), June 30, 1945, 9.

16. “Jesse Owens, Crawfords Win At Parkway,” Louisville Daily-Journal, June 25, 1945, 8.

17. “Crawfords Grab Pair,” Louisville Daily-Journal, July 9, 1945, 8.

18. “Negro Teams Play Snappy Baseball,” Winnipeg Tribune, July 14, 1945, 14.

19. “Colored Hurler Scores No-Hitter,” Winnipeg Tribune, July 13, 1945, 10.

20. “Pittsburgh Craws Set Lexington Night Tilt With New Orleans,” St. Paul Recorder, July 27, 1945, 1. Rickey had said, “You cannot have a league as we understand it, to function as an organization of organized clubs if you admit that the clubs in it are dependent upon outside booking agents to book them, like in Shibe Park in Philadelphia and Yankee Stadium,” adding, “If the NNL and NAL lost their influence with their booking agents the whole structure of both organizations would go wrong.” “New U.S. League Gets Full Backing of Branch Rickey,” Washington Afro-American, May 12, 1945, 15.

21. For instance, the Pittsburgh Courier provided standings of the league in its June 2 edition, alongside the Negro National and American Leagues and the Negro Southern League. On June 16, it published a box score for a Crawfords game. By the end of the month, the coverage was almost nonexistent. The Chicago Defender covered the Southern League, but rarely the U.S. League. The Birmingham Weekly Review did not typically cover the league but published complete rosters for five of its teams. “New U.S. League Made Up From Teams of Six Northern Cities,” Weekly Review, June 30, 1945, 7.

22. For instance, the Fort Worth Star-Telegram opined, after a Toledo-Chicago game, that “neither one of the teams of the new U.S. League was up to the standard expected of Negro big leagues.” “Three Negro Games in Next Four Days,” Fort Worth Star-Telegram, June 16, 1945, 3.

23. Al Abrams, “Sidelights on Sports,” Pittsburgh Post-Gazette, July 6, 1945, 12; “U.S. League Kicks Out Philly, Brooklyn,” Chicago Defender, July 14, 1945, 7.

24. “Pittsburgh Craws, Ex-World Champs, Have Strong Club,” Muncie Star, August 9, 1945, 10.

25. “New Orleans Crew Wears Giant Togs,” Daily Illinois State Journal (Springfield), August 9, 1945, 12.

26. “Clowns Cop 2 Games from Brown Bombers,” Indianapolis Star, August 23, 1945, 14.

27. “Brown Dodgers Get Big Welcome Home,” Brooklyn Daily Eagle, July 21, 1945, 7.

28. See for instance “Brown Dodgers Play Twice Here Sunday,” Montreal Gazette, August 25, 1945, 16.

29. “Les noirs ont raison du Verdonet par 5–2,” Le Soleil (Quebec City), July 17, 1945, 7; “Crawfords Came And Conquered With Score of 14 to 1 Over Notre Dame,” Sherbrooke Daily Record, July 18, 1945, 10.

30. “Crawfords Win Twice From Brown Dodgers,” Montreal Gazette, August 28, 1945, 16.

31. “Les Crawfords ont les parties 3–2, 6–4,” L’Action Catholique (Quebec City), August 29, 1945, 8.

32. “Asheville Blues to Meet Hilldales Club,” Asheville Citizen, September 8, 1945, 5.

33. Harry Keck, “Sports; Local Official Called Turn On Roughing The Kicker Penalty,” Pittsburgh Sun-Telegraph, September 7, 1945, 26. A committee was formed for the All-Star Game, consisting of Greenlee, league president John Shackleford, and owner Holland F. Kelley for the USL, and John Harden, Henry N. Lewis, and C.L. Hyatt for the Negro Southern League. “North-South Game, Southern Loop and U.S. League Series Set For Sunday Sept. 16, At Brooklyn,” Cleveland Call and Post, September 8, 1945, 6-B.

34. “No All-Star North-South Game with U.S. League,” Chicago Defender, September 8, 1945, 7.

35. “Grays Trim Pittsburgh,” Knoxville Journal, September 24, 1945, 7.

36. “U.S. League Scores,” Cleveland Call and Post, September 8, 1945, 7-B.

37. “Black Barons To Play Indios Here Tonight,” El Paso Times, October 11, 1945, 10.

38. See for instance Associated Press, “Rickey’s Signing of Negro Called Revolutionary Step in Baseball,” St. Louis Post-Dispatch, October 24, 1945.

39. Eddie Burbidge, “Layin’ It On The Line,” California Eagle, November 8, 1945, 16.

40. “Baseball Owners Protest Jackie Robinson Signing,” Baltimore Afro-American, November 17, 1945, 23.

41. “USL Officials Attend Jackie Robinson Debut,” Baltimore Afro-American, May 4, 1946, 14.

42. Lanctot, Negro League Baseball, 288–90.

43. Lanctot, Negro League Baseball, 290.

44. Robert Cvornyek, “The Color of Baseball: Race and Boston’s Sporting Community,” Black Ball: A Negro Leagues Journal 6 (2013), 70–106.

45. “Les Crawfords et les Blues de Boston se disputent un programme double ici,” Le Canada (Montreal), June 1, 1946, 10.

46. “Crawfords lose Two,” Pittsburgh Post-Gazette, May 20, 1946, 17.

47. Associated Press, “Buys Entire Club to Get One Star Hurler,” Durham (NC) Morning Herald, June 5, 1946, 11.

48. “Canadians Trounce Crawfords With 17-Hit Attack,” Sherbrooke Daily Record, June 4, 1946, 10.

49. “Deux équipes de noirs à Jonquière ce soir et demain,” Le Progrès du Saguenay (QC), June 6, 1946, 4.

50. “Le Boston Blues bat les Crawfords 10–2,” L’Action Catholique, June 6, 1946, 10.

51. Lloyd McGowan, “Dutch Mele Old Meany Twin Syracuse Setback,” Montreal Gazette, June 3, 1946, 14.

52. “Blues Take Two From Br. Dodgers, Up League Lead,” Brooklyn Daily Eagle, June 10, 1946, 14.

53. Howard Brantz, “A Sporting Glance,” Winona Daily News, May 15, 1946, 13.

54. “U.S. League,” Chicago Defender, July 6, 1946, 11.

55. “U.S. League.”

56. “Dark Dodgers Win, Lose at Stadium,” Montreal Daily Star, July 22, 1946, 14.

57. “Crawfords Capture Two as Johnson Throws No-Hitter,” Brooklyn Eagle, August 12, 1946, 12.

58. “Largest Crowd of Season Sees Colored Stars In Action,” Kingston Whig-Standard, July 23, 1946, 8.

59. Russell Smith, “13 Errors as Boston Wins Game Here,” Waterloo Courier, July 22, 1946, 9.

60. Hayward Jackson, “Crawfords Setting Pace in the U.S. Baseball League,” St. Louis Argus, August 2, 1946, 19.

61. “Negro ‘9’s’ Play Here Monday; Are 1–2 in the U.S. League,” Binghamton (NY) Press, August 17, 1946, 15.

62. “Crawfords Top Blues by 7–5,” Binghamton Press, August 21, 1946, 29.

63. “Les Crawfords ont battu les Blues de Boston, en programme double, 4–3, 2–1,” L’Action Catholique, August 30, 1946, 15.

64. “Caught On The Fly,” The Sporting News, September 18, 1946, 29.

65. “Crawfords Win Twin Bill,” Louisville Courier-Journal, September 9, 1946, 9.

66. “Jackie Robinson’s Stars Play Oakland Larks at Perris Hill,” San Bernardino County Sun, October 27, 1946, 23.

67. Ad in The Sporting News, October 30, 1946, B-26.

68. “U.S. League,” Chicago Defender, July 20, 1946, 11.

69. “American League Moguls Vote Eight-Team Circuit,” Cleveland Call and Post, March 1 1947, 5-A.

70. Advertisement, Louisville Courier-Journal, August 24, 1947, 53.

71. “Chivos Win Double-Header,” Louisville Courier-Journal, August 25, 1947, 9.

72. “Farnham To Pay Initial Visit Tomorrow Afternoon 2:30,” Sherbrooke Daily Record, June 20, 1947, 12